Descartes Dream Argument Essay

Descartes Dream Argument Essay In Meditation One Rene Descartes brings up the theory concerning those things that can be called into doubt. At the beginning of the meditation Descartes tells us that he wants to reject (or try to reject all of his beliefs). He is trying to accomplish this seemingly impossible feat because as he has matured he has witnessed how numerous were the false opinions that in [his] youth [he] had taken to be true and he had built all his other ideas on those foundations. He also mentions that in order to establish anything firm and lasting then he must free his mind of all presuppositions and see which beliefs are still valid. To accomplish this goal, it would be impossible to call into question every single belief. Descartes believes that if he eliminates his foundation beliefs, then the other beliefs that have been built on top of them will crumble. To be able to doubt any of his foundations, Descartes believes that two steps must be taken in order to truly call in to question or make dub itable these beliefs. The first step is to explain how ones beliefs went wrong, and the second is to explain how things would be different if this belief were to be false. This second step is the most important because if Descartes is unable to imagine a world where one of his beliefs is wrong how can that idea possibly be questioned? The easiest way for Descartes to question his beliefs would be to believe that the senses are unreliable and that they trick us at times. Descartes goes on to tell us that the senses are sometimes deceptive and the senses have tricked him in the past, so they could be tricking him now. This gives weight to cases where the object is a long was off, in bad light, etc. An ordinary sense deception provides a reason for doubting beliefs about objects a long way off, but not objects that are up close and personal in plain view. To be able to bring into question things that are up close and personal in plain view Descartes creates the dream argument and it ha s a very unique view on how dreams can be so real at times that one may not be able to tell the difference when he is dreaming or awake. The dream argument is designed to call into question the existence of the material world. The reason that Descartes creates the dream argument is for the sake of calling into doubt sensory judgments; these are judgments about material things. Descartes believes that ordinary misperception occurs quite often and that the senses lead one to make false judgments. The example that Descartes provides in his meditation is a very simple and clear one. First Descartes has an experience (we will call this E1) that prompts the judgment where he is sitting next to a fire, wearing his winter dressing gown. During this first experience (E1) Descartes has a visual experience of himself sitting next to the fire and wearing his winter dressing gown. Next, Descartes lets us know that he had another experience (E2) and this prompts the same judgment where he is sitt ing next to the fire and wearing his winter dressing gown. The distinctive thing about his last experience (E2) is that he had this experience during a dream. Through these two experiences Descartes comes to the conclusion that there are no definitive signs by which to distinguish being awake from being asleep. Descartes later goes on to explain the significance of the dream argument. First off, all judgments about the material world are based on experience. Secondly, if an experience is dreamt, that is a reason to doubt the judgment based on it. Finally, for any experience (E) there is no way to tell if it is a dreamt or waking experience. These three rules lead to a final conclusion that all judgments based on experience are dubitable. With this conclusion Descartes has shaken the foundations of all of his beliefs. Of course not everything can be answered by the dream argument; there are questions that arise that Descartes is unable to provide an answer for solely with his one the ory. It could be argued that the images we form in dreams can only be made up of bits and pieces of real experience combined in novel ways. This obviously means that without reality and the act of being awake we would not be able to create the things that we could misinterpret without ever waking. Although we can doubt the surface structure of our reality, we have no reason to doubt the things that make up the basics of our daily life. (In particular, there is no reason to doubt the arithmetic and geometric properties that the material world is made out of.) However, in the Sixth Meditation Descartes adopts a position calling into doubt the dream argument and states that there is an obvious way of telling the difference between dreaming and being awake, because dreams are never joined by [his] memory with all the other actions of life. However, to bring a counterpoint to what is said in the Sixth Meditation, Descartes might have stated the following justifications. Just because experiences in dreams are not remembered or interrelated to our waking life does not mean that the dream world during sleep is not another form of reality. Many times I have had dreams that are very vivid and completely leave my mind while awake. However, as I return to bed and prepare to go to sleep these vivid dreams come rushing back as though my psychic being is preparing to enter the dream world. The dream world experienced while asleep may indeed be a completely different dimension that our psychic consciousness goes to. There may be an infinite amount of pl ains that we visit while we are in this dream world. They have no relation to the physical world or experiences that we have while awake therefore; that is why we encounter persons, places and things that are completely unknown and irrelevant to us in the reality we experience while awake. Therefore, who is to say which state is the most real? As we spend almost as much time sleeping as we do awake. Some experiences while awake are primarily to nourish our physical bodies. However, our psychic emotional states may be nourished more while in the dream state as opposed to the repetitive mundane experiences from daily life. It is highly possible that our consciousness develops more while being immersed in the dream state more so than in the waking state which goes hand in hand with the statement reality sucks.

To What Extent Has the Human Rights Act 1998

European Convention on Human Rights The European Convention on Human Rights is a binding international agreement that protects the political and fundamental civil rights of human beings and their basic freedoms. The Convention was drafted in 1950 by the Council of Europe, and came into force on the 3rd of September 1953. In 1951, the ECHR was not yet part of the British Legal System. In 1997, the Labour government introduced a bill into Parliament to incorporate the ECHR – creating The Human Rights Bill. It was only in November 1998 that the ECHR became part of British law.This entitled each person to the right of individual petition to the British courts, should they feel that any right in the Convention had been violated. Unlike the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted by the UN in 1948), the ECHR has been adopted by the Council of Europe and has been sanctioned by many countries. Articles within the European Convention on Human Rights The ECHR is divided into thre e sections, consisting of fifty-nine articles – and a further thirteen protocols (European Court of Human Rights – echr. coe. int website). Below I have highlighted some articles from the three sections.Section 1 is concerned with the â€Å"Rights and Freedoms† of humans. This includes article 2 – the right to life – which is to be protected by law, binding all the signatory countries to ensure that every human will not be â€Å"deprived of his life intentionally† and to defend each individual from unlawful violence. Section 1 also enforces the prohibition of such acts including torture, slavery and forced labour. Article 5 emphasizes the right of freedom and security of every individual (The European Convention on Human Rights (Jacobs and White), 2002).Article 6 states the right to a fair trial; even those charged with a criminal offence are entitled to â€Å"minimum rights†. Article 8 focuses on the right of privacy and family respe ct of every person. Article 9 addresses each individual’s right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. With this right, we all have the freedom to change our religion or beliefs. Which leads to article 10, entitling each individual to freedom of expression. Article 12 gives the right to both men and women of â€Å"marriageable age† to have the right to marry and have a family.They must however follow the national laws that govern the exercise of this right. Article 18 ensures that these rules of Convention can only be used for the specific purpose as defined in all articles. Section 2 (the largest section of the ECHR) focuses entirely on the European Court of Human Rights. This includes rules regarding the number of judges, the criteria for office, the competence of both single judges and of committees, and the jurisdiction of the Court. Section 3 encompasses all miscellaneous provisions (article 52 to 59). Human Rights Act 1998The Human Rights Act 1998 (which is also known as the Act or HRA) is an act of parliament that was instated in 1998, on the 9th of November – receiving Royal concurrence. However it was two years later, on the 2nd of October in 2000 that the act actually came into force. The major purpose of the act was to provide a solution to the breach of human rights issues in the UK, without the need of going to Strasbourg’s European Court of Human Rights. It works as a mechanism to implement the European Convention on Human Rights, which was enforced in other European countries well before the United Kingdom.HRA greatly facilitates the implementation of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in the UK, in order to provide rights to the citizens of the country. Sections of the Human Rights Act 1998 There are 22 sections that form the Human Rights Act 1998. Below I have highlighted sections 1 to 4. Section 1 of HRA focuses on the enforcement of rights (that are given in the ECHR) in the judiciary and law system of the UK. Section 2 focuses on the interpretation of the Human Rights Act. Under section 2 of HRA the UK courts are directed to take the decision of European courts when solving a case of human right violation.It must be noted that the UK courts are not obliged to follow European decision, however it is mandatory for them to follow the HRA in regards to human rights issues. Section 3 focuses on the interpretation of the laws, and requires courts to wholly understand the primary and subordinate legislations of the ECHR; the focus on interpretation is to ensure compatibility with the ECHR. Under this section the courts are required to read in, read out and read down to fully interpret the statutory clauses in the act (Keenan & Riches’ Business Law, 2011) . Section 4 of the HRA describes the courts permission to declare an issue ‘incompatible’.If a law cannot be interpreted to make it comply with human rights, incompatibility is declared. Judges do not have the right to overturn primary legislation in the UK if they find that it is not compatible with human rights, however they are able to overturn secondary legislation. The Protection of Human Rights Act 1998 The Act also hinders any public authorities (including the entire public sector – even courts) of performing actions that violate the Conventions rights. Should any public authority violate any right of an individual, the court’s decision will be in favor of the claimant.However, violation of human rights from a member of a public authority can be justified if the violation occurred under certain circumstances or as a result of the mandatory obligations imposed by the Westminster primary legislation. The court retains the right to declare any action incompatible if it cannot be proved under the HRA 1998. Implementation of the ECHR The United Kingdom has ratified the European Convention on Human Rights. However, its effectiveness depends mainly on the extent of its i mplementation by the courts. This is where the Human Rights Act comes in.The key objective of the HRA is to achieve maximum compatibility with the European Convention on Human Rights; giving further effect to the ECHR. The Human Rights Act came into force on the 2nd of October 2000. Since then, it has enforced the Convention’s rights into the UK courts. Looking at how the HRA is set out (individual sections) I believe that the HRA has implemented the ECHR to a great extent. My reasoning for this lies predominantly in Section 3 of the HRA, where interpretation of the laws requires courts to thoroughly comprehend the legislations in the ECHR and to fully interpret the statutory clauses.This ensures that the laws are well understood, which is crucial when dealing with human rights. Sections 2 and 4 also allow the judges to retain sufficient control in order to create a more effective and independent legal system (without the need to constantly go back to Strasbourg’s Euro pean Court of Human Rights). This has made the process much quicker and more effective; it has also given UK citizens a clear legal statement of their basic rights and fundamental freedoms.

Evaluation of Airport Security Measures Essay

Response and especially quick response to stresses may results to major loopholes and possible risky omissions. Mainly, this occurs due to lack of enough time to holistically evaluate the immediate issue at hand and possible local and international pressures. Since September 2001, US transportation systems security on terrorist attacks assumed vast urgency that saw major changes in the sector’s operations. The Congress passed the Airport Security Federalization Act of 2001 as the main platform for restoring the overall sanctity and integrity of the airports to secure the fast dwindling consumers confidence both locally and internationally. 1. Describe implementation issues of the airport security measures which were approved by Congress shortly after the incident on September 11 (i. e. Airport Security Federalization Act of 2001). To begin with, the act required that all the airport security screening personnel be federal employees and an estimated 20, 0000 new federal workers had to be hired. Smaller airports were required to employ local law enforcement agencies to provide security. However, ensuring that the transport funding needs are effectively identified and comprehensively prioritized is still a major challenge. Putting the security measures under the federal considerations in all the airports rose with a great deal the funds required by the new department of homeland security. Arguably, the Act did not immediately establish the direct input of the airports where the new security teams were deployed. With the current economic downturn, the Department of Homeland Security has expressed one of its operations setbacks as lack of enough funds to sustain these operations (Alexander & Seth, 2004). To add to that, effective harmony and coordination in the Department of Homeland Security and Department of Transport has proved to be a hard nut to crack altogether. As indicated earlier, bulk of the employees in airport systems were transferred to the Department of Homeland Security which has created an extended system of response to the major problems by the expanded panel (Marcus, 2004). Notably, scholars have indicated that September 11 Terrorist attack resulted from long time known vulnerabilities that indicated failure to pro-actively address them. Though an immediate operation system was established for running the airports, there was lack of clear long term focus on the management of the airports under the combined system. Ensuring the overall competence of the staff via high quality and staffing competence emphasis for the expanded workforce has been a major challenge since the passing of the Act (Robert et al, 2008). Arguably, the Department of Transport acknowledged of possible future stresses from the large demand for training and capacity building for the employees. This formed an extension of the prior challenges on funding and coordination between the private sector, the Department of Transport and the Department of Homeland security. Monitoring and supervision of this massive and highly integrative workforce widens the gap further due to the variance in approach (Robert et al, 2008). Whereas the private entities are direct after effective implementation of the law under al conditions, the private parties are after maximal profits which could compromise the whole agenda due to considerations of risk taking in a capitalistic setting. 2. Describe gaps in airport security, which were not addressed by these measures Arguably, the Airport Security Federalization Act of 2001 had major gaps that have seen slow implementation of its demands and reduced capacity to achieve the overall objectives. The main aim of the laws is to enhance better operations and maximum returns to the public and the government. However, the massive screening measures established never appreciated the difficulties that people go through to be cleared for flights. This has raised concerns locally and globally. To add to that, the law requires that only Americans can serve in the airport screening personnel (Subcommittee on Homeland Security, 2008). This was a major gap in promoting non professionalism and closing out innovations from the global outsourcing arena. Notably, laws preventing entry into the Cockpit have existed with little success in US and other countries. However, the Act emphasizes on the rule as a major preventive measure. This indicates possible disaster in waiting as it is entirely dependent on consciousness of the crew on board. To add to that, the act requires that the cockpit be equipped with stun guns for emergency purposes (Robert et al, 2008). However, this is another major loophole with analysts urgently calling for its reconsideration. Presence of ammunitions should be under a highly trained federal air marshal. Arguably, arms in the cockpit act as a possible supply to the terrorists after lacking possible ways to get theirs on board.

Sicko and Moore Essay - 2846 Words

Dawli 10 Elias Dawli Wrt ­105 Professor Bollinger December 12, 2010 SiCKo: The Thought ­Provoker Michael Francis Moore is a controversial American filmmaker who has directed numerous documentaries. These documentaries have taken a large spectrum of popular American issues and reduced them to one: capitalism. His most popular cinematic works include Bowling for Columbine, Fahrenheit 9/11, Capitalism: A Love Story, and most ­notably, SiCKo. With a liberal stance, Moore has documented his own vision on America’s large corporations, such as the Bush administration’s foreign policy, financial crises, and the American healthcare system. Although all of his†¦show more content†¦During Moore’s adventure, the United Dawli 10 States Coast Guard stops and questions Moore and his crewmembers about their destination. Moore cleverly answers, â€Å"We’re not going to Cuba! We’re going to America! It’s American soil† (SiCKo). This voyage is humorous because Moore plays upon the irony that in order for American citizens to receive free quality health care, they must be taken the prison, which houses some of America’s most dangerous criminals. Another example in the film is when Moore â€Å"discovers in a British hospital corridor a â€Å"CASHIER† window, which he pretends to suppose is the hidden flaw in British free health services† (Callenbach 18). However, he soon learns that the â€Å"Cashier† is actually a place where the hospital pays its patients for any costs they may have incurred throughout their stay, such as transportation costs to and from the hospital. Moore compares the fact that people can actually get paid to go to the hospital in England, to America where patients need to pay for their health care, and illustrates this point using humor and sarcasm. As Chapman illustrates, â€Å"Documentary is also recognized as being a very engaged sort of cinema, which means that there are inevitably pressures and sometimes conflicting claims† (Chapman 8). In other words, althoughShow MoreRelatedSicko - Michael Moore Essay1066 Words   |  5 PagesSicko is a 2007 documentary produced, written and directed by the American filmmaker Michael Moore. The film investigates the United States health cares system, focusing primarily on health insurance and the pharmaceutical industry. Moore does not in fact pose questions as to how America should reform its health care however it does suggest many solutions. Michael Moore depicts the American health care system as one that contains many flaws. 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